How Is the New SAT Scored

How Is the New SAT Scored SAT/ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The scoring model on the new SAT varies essentially from the scoring model that was utilized on the old adaptation of the test. It's essential to know about these progressions with the goal that you can design your considering and test-taking techniques appropriately. In this article, I'll experience all the scoring contrasts that have occurred for the new SAT and what they mean for you as an understudy. Primary Scoring Differences The greatest change in the new SAT scoring structure is that it utilizes a 1600 point scale rather than a 2400 point scale.The Math segment is as yet worth 800 points.The Reading and Writing segments together are called â€Å"Evidence-Based Reading and Writing† and record for the other 800 points.The article is discretionary and scored independently from the various decision bits of the test (your paper scoredoesn't affectyour Evidence-Based Reading and Writing score). Another distinction in the scoring strategy isthe end of point derivations for wrong answers.On the old SAT, you were docked a fourth of a point for each question you addressed incorrectly.The SAT is presently increasingly like the ACT in that off base answers are dealt with equivalent to questions that were left clear (no focuses included or deducted). There are alsofour answer decisions for each question now as opposed to five. I don't get This' meaning for You? Since there’s no speculating punishment, you don’t need to stress over whether you should theory or leave an inquiry clear on the test.Guessing is consistently the correct decision! This doesn’t essentially imply that it's simpler to get a higher score since the test is bended to represent these changes. In any case, it takes a portion of the worry of the testing procedure. The change to a 1600 scale shouldn’t sway you except if you’re attempting to think about your scores out of 2400 on the old SAT to scores on the new version.This might be a worry on the off chance that you need to know how much you’ll need to improve to get a score on the new SAT that’s equal to your objective score on the old SAT. Here's a diagram thatwill assist you with changing over your present or more established scores to their proportional numbers on the new SAT. In any case, remember that the most recent scoring model gives more weight to Math score. On the old SAT, Math just made up 33% of your all out score. On the new SAT, it makes up half. This could imply that understudies who are particularly solid in Math will improve on the new SAT by 50 or so focuses. On the off chance that you scored a 800 on Math and a 650 on both Reading and Writing on the old SAT, you would have a composite score of 2100. Accepting you kept on remaining at a similar level after taking the new SAT, a 800 in Math and a 650 on the Evidence-Based Reading and Writing area would give you a 1450. This score is 50 focuses higher than the 1400 you would anticipate for yourself in the event that you duplicated 2100 by 66% for an immediate change to the new scale. Most schools will acknowledge scores from both the present SAT and the new SAT for in any event two or three years. The College Board will give schools concordance tables to assist them with judging and look at scores over the two distinct tests. Also,score choiceis still a choice, so you don’t need to stress over that changing with the refreshed test. Lock up your terrible SAT score in a safe taken cover behind a common work of art in your rich old uncle's house. Nobody will ever think about it except if he bites the dust and you and your cousins need to go through a creepy night secured his home (and his will specifies that you need to reveal your most profound, darkest insider facts to one another so as to get a bit of the legacy). New SAT Subscores The new SAT likewise incorporates an unpredictable scoring structure past the principle segment scores.There aretest scores for Math, Reading, and Writing, each on a size of 10-40. Additionally, the new SAT hastwo unique classes of inquiries, Analysis ever/Social Sciences and Analysis in Science.These are likewise scored on a size of 10-40.These scores are called â€Å"cross-test scores† in light of the fact that every one of the classifications spread inquiries in each of the three areas of the test. Moreover, there areseven subscores, each on a size of 1-15, for the accompanying classifications: Order of Evidence (Reading and Writing) Words in Context (Reading and Writing) Articulation of Ideas (Writing) Standard English Conventions (Writing) Heart of Algebra (Math) Critical thinking and Data Analysis (Math) Visa to Advanced (Math) Here's a breakdown of the diverse subscores in this realistic taken from the Khan Academy site: This implies each question on the test fits into different subscore classifications. Take, for instance, this inquiry from the Reading segment of one of the new SAT practice tests: The diagram following the section offers proof that blessing providers base their expectations of how much a blessing will be acknowledged on A) the gratefulness level of the blessing beneficiaries. B) the money related estimation of the blessing. C) their own wants for the endowments they buy. D) their relationship with the blessing beneficiaries. This inquiry would normally be remembered for the subscore for the Reading test.It would likewise be remembered for the Analysis ever/Social Sciences cross-test score: since it manages the translation of a chart that contains information about a sociological marvel, it expects you to think scientifically in a sociologies setting. It would not be a piece of the Command of Evidence or Words in Context Reading subscores in light of the fact that it doesn't approach you to give proof to your response to a past question or show your comprehension of the importance of a word in the entry. What an insightful blessing! I unquestionably won't discard these in the following garbage would i be able to happen to see! Need to become familiar with the SAT yet burnt out on perusing blog articles? At that point you'll cherish our free, SAT prep livestreams. Structured and driven by PrepScholar SAT specialists, these live video occasions are an extraordinary asset for understudies and guardians hoping to get familiar with the SAT and SAT prep. Snap on the catch beneath to enroll for one of our livestreams today! I don't get This' meaning for You? The new subscores mean more data about your qualities and shortcomings on the test.These scores help feature your particular qualities for schools and furthermore give direction on where you can improve your skills.College Board has collaborated up with Khan Academy to offer afree prep program for the new SAT that personalizesyour prep plan dependent on your subscore appropriation to assist you with concentrating on improving your particular powerless zones. The subscores additionally point to new question types on the present SAT.Notice that â€Å"Command of Evidence† is a subscore class for Reading questions.Questions that approach you to refer to confirm for your answers are currently a significant segment of the Reading section.These questions solicit which lines from the entry give the best proof to the response to the past inquiry, pushing you to comprehend the thinking behind your response.This can be an or more in that it may wipe out senseless errors on some understanding inquiries, however it likewise includes a difficult new layer of investigation. â€Å"Words in Context† is additionally a telling classification; understanding jargon in setting is currently a greater piece of the Reading section.The end of sentence finishing questionsmeans that there are more jargon in setting questions.These center less around cloud jargon and more on understanding subtleties in the implications of all the more ordinarily utilized words. The presence of â€Å"Problem Solving and Data Analysis†, alongside the two cross-test diagnostic scores, implies that there arequestions that request that you decipher information and apply scientific and consistent thinking to genuine situations. Paper Scores On the present SAT, the paper is discretionary, and its organization has additionally been updated.Rather than getting some information about your conclusion on a general inquiry, the article brief requests that you read an entry and break down the contention that is presented.The College Board says that the new exposition is â€Å"a part like an ordinary school composing task in which you’re requested to examine a text.† The paper is scored from 2-8 across three unique measurements: Reading, Analysis, and Writing.The expositions are still perused by two graders, yet now every grader scores the article on a size of 1-4 in Reading, Analysis, and Writing. These scores are then included for a score from 2-8 in every class. This implies the most extreme paper score is a 24, and the base is a 6. Here'sa rubric that clarifies precisely how these scores are determined.Essentially, the contrast between a propelled paper and an only capable exposition is the degree of comprehension of the source message that the understudy illustrates. A propelled article shows an intensive understanding of how subtleties in the content interrelate to help the writer's contention. It goes past a fundamental outline of the creator's focuses to give a wise, centered investigation of the contention. You should have the option to utilize an amplifying glass on the article. From what I've seen on Google pictures, examination can't occur without one. I don't get This' meaning for You? The College Board has made another article group in which understudies must show systematic abilities that are basic for achievement in college.On the new exposition, you’re requested to clarify how the writer fabricates their contention in the entry and bolster your focuses with pertinent proof and details.Asking understudies to compose a paper about another person’s contention is a superior method of passing judgment on perusing and composing aptitudes than requesting that they compose a supposition piece. Regardless of whether you end up in a humanities discipline in school, you’ll likely compose an examination paper or possibly investigate different people’s logical or chronicled discoveries at some point.An capacity to comprehend

HISTORY Bachelor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

HISTORY Bachelor - Essay Example To the extent Goldhagen's notorious section eight, Police Battalion 101: Assessing the men's thought processes, the primary concern of contention with this part has to do with the allegation that numerous common Germans had inspiration to take an interest in the Holocaust, and had a few intentions in doing as such. Numerous individuals have felt that the book's missing can't safeguard the assaults against it or, then again, that the book's achievements don't clarify its fruitful deals. In any case, this thought of the book is foolhardy; concentrating on Goldhagen tacks consideration away from his significant cases, and to inspect the essential issues of the book itself. The book's proposition is very natural; its focal case thinks about a nullification of fifty years assessment and research in regards to the Holocaust. The significant focal point of part eight's ideas really contends against the possibility that the mass destruction of the Jewish individuals happened dependent on rationale and the higher classes of government. The mass homicide of the Jewish individuals would have given the Nazis a few troublesome issues when arranging how to move toward the killings (Hilberg). Be that as it may, the administration arranging was amazingly mind boggling, just as the executing, which was extremely basic to the underlying accomplishment of the elimination. The procedure by which the slaughter was sorted out expelled ordinary people mentally and ethically from the activities of the administration. This would imply that either the ordinary people who partook in German culture were unconscious of the destruction, or may have even maybe had a protection fr om the whole idea. Nonetheless, Goldhagen doesn't concur with this idea; he feels that even normal Germans had against Semitic convictions that permits them to by one way or another partake in, or neglect, the activities of the legislature. Goldhagen states that it was the intellectual and worth structures of common Germans- - to be specific their harmfully hostile to Semitic convictions - that established the focal causal operator of the Holocaust (67-68). At the point when initially looking at this idea, it truly appears that Goldhagen's case is maybe more clear than most would need to acknowledge. In the event that the ordinary residents of Germany were against the mass elimination of the Jews, for what reason would the Nazis have endeavored so immaculately to kill the millions they murdered Wouldn't the regular German residents make more endeavors, by and by and freely, to help the Jews The Anti-Semitism in Germany, in this way, was not a branch of the Nazis' very own quarrel, however part of the social build of all residents of Germany. Consequently, Goldhagen feels that the Nazis can't be accused exclusively for the annihilation of the Jews; the whole German individuals ought to be thought of, as this appeared to have been to a greater degree an across the country endeavor. Hitler's initiative and vanquishing of Europe may have made the way for mass slaughtering; in any case, the media portrayal of the Jews as subhuman and Hitler' s control of the German individuals were insufficient to embrace such a huge undertaking of annihilation. Rather, Goldhagen feels that the abhorring of the Jewish individuals by the German individuals made significant progress before this, and originated before Hitler's control of Germany. Or maybe, it appears to have been a piece of the German culture for a long while. Goldenhangen's verification comes not on the focal point of the eradication camps present in Germany and

Self Introduction Essay Samples Help You Write Your Own Papers

Self Introduction Essay Samples Help You Write Your Own PapersSelf introduction essay samples are very important for students who are trying to write essays. These essay samples not only offer some great ways to incorporate them into your essay, but also help you get a clearer picture of what this form of essay is all about. The concept of a personal essay has changed over the years, and it is changing even more in the future. We have a lot to learn about students who take their personal essays seriously.A personal essay is generally written to explain a student's thoughts and feelings about themselves, their families, their teachers, etc. in the context of their lives. It provides insight into how the student understands themselves. Some students write essays about themselves in order to provide further insights into the emotional and intellectual growth they are experiencing.There are many ways to approach writing a personal essay. You can do it yourself by researching your topic a nd choosing to base your writing on information you find interesting or relevant. You can also work with a professional writer. You can find hundreds of online samples that are professionally written by professional writers. In the end, however, it is up to you to decide how you want to write the essay.In addition to the fact that there are thousands of self introduction essay samples, the scope of these samples is also much wider than just a few paragraphs. They can provide you with a lot of different methods to include in your essay. From using a popular song, to using an old quote, to making an analogy, they will also provide some great examples of how to use a combination of various approaches to write an impressive essay.Self introduction essay samples help you to discover some great ways to make use of your sources and introduce topics that will be crucial to your essay. You can find examples of how to write articles, books, articles, essays, and dissertations. These samples a lso contain great ways to introduce ideas and concepts that will be pivotal to your essay.Self introduction essay samples will help you know how to use some of the most common formats in an easy to use way. If you are not sure how to proceed with some of the formatting used in these samples, they will teach you all of the basics that you need to know. They will give you tips for using headers, footers, titles, and text boxes.Writing a paper is a very important process for almost any student. It is a way for you to express your views on a subject or to demonstrate knowledge and understanding about a topic. The important thing about this kind of essay is that you create a sense of connection with your reader by conveying important information through the text you use. While it is easy to get lost in the many different options available, these samples will help you get a better sense of how to structure your essay.If you are having trouble writing your own essay, you may find these sam ples of self introduction essay samples helpful. There are many ways to approach a personal essay. You can find ways to use a variety of resources, including the websites and sample essays included in these samples.

The Unions Ability to Conduct Total Warfare and...

The Unions Ability to Conduct Total Warfare and Confederate Defeat The American War for Independence was a successful struggle of a smaller nation fighting a larger, more powerful force. However, in the case of the American Civil War, the larger more powerful Union defeated the southern Confederacy. The Union won the Civil War because the Confederacy could not sustain a war of attrition in the Napoleonic style that evolved into Total War. This paper will briefly explain what Napoleonic warfare is and examine the resources of the North and South. Then, the paper will develop how the Union used its advantages in resources and the use of Total War to defeat the Confederacy. The American War for Independence, on the American side,†¦show more content†¦There were many battles fought in this style. Some of the famous battles fought in this style are Gettysburg, Fredericksburg, Antietam, and Chancellorsville. Here is an account of Pickett’s Charge during the battle of Gettysburg, which exemplifies Napoleonic warfare: â€Å"†¦Longstreet ordered a concentration of Confederate artillery†¦to soften up the enemy at the point of attack. For almost two hours an artillery dual among nearly 300 guns filled the Pennsylvania countryside†¦ [Then] With parade-ground precision, Pickett’s three brigades moved out†¦ It was a magnificent mile-wide spectacle.† This style of battle may have worked, at times, for the Confederacy. However, in the long run, it would lead to the South’s defeat. The North had a preponderance of resources that are needed to conduct a war of European style. In order to conduct a war, a government needs men to fight and an economy that can be suited for wartime production. For wartime production to be efficient, there needs to be available labor, transportation, communication, natural resources, and foodstuff. The North had a larger population, more fighting age men, more railroad and canals, and more factories that could produce materiel. For example, the North had 5,832,128 draft animals (horses, mules, and asses) compared to 2,928,494 in the South. Furthermore, in 1840, the South had 44 percent of the nation’s railroad lines. By 1850, â€Å"the more rapidShow MoreRelatedContemporary Issues in Management Accounting211377 Words   |  846 Pagesis respected for the ways in which he can comb ine conceptual understandings with pragmatic insights. He has been sought out to provide that extra element of conceptual clarity for the most complex of practical accounting endeavours. No doubt such abilities reflect Michael’s early grounding in both the practice of accounting and its economic theorization, the former at Ford and the latter initially at the London School of Economics and thereafter as a lifetime endeavour. But personal though his achievements

Abortion Is Beyond Necessary For Mothers - 1229 Words

According to multiple sources, having the highest level of knowledge, and knowing the physical and mental side effects of abortion is beyond necessary for mothers. Many women suffer from mental instabilities long after their decision to abort. In the article â€Å"The Mental Effects of Abortion,† it states from the narrator when speaking about her friend that â€Å"She told me that not one day had passed that she did not think about her baby and regret her decision. My heart ached for my friend, as she was clearly tormented by her decision.† By reading many articles and biographies, they never fail to remind me why I strongly support, and can defend the Pro-Life Movement. The Pro-Life Movement is a social and political movement in the United States opposing on moral or sectarian grounds elective abortion and usually supporting its legal prohibition or restriction. Additionally, there is an endless amount of physical and mental side effects of abortion, but there is not enough cures for the pain that endures forever. Abortion can cause some permanent changes within the lady s physical body for example; incomplete removal of the baby, inability to get pregnant again, a torn cervix, and other effects of that nature. Every four out of ten some are fully educated about that all around topic of abortion itself- many women do not know that abortion can be deadly if the procedure if not done correctly. In the article â€Å"Let s Just Say It: Women Matter More Than Fetuses Do,†about sixty yearsShow MoreRelatedAbortion : The Only Medical Procedure1251 Words   |  6 PagesAbortion in Queensland is the only medical procedure that is still considered a criminal offence in the Criminal Code Act 1999 (Qld). Since the abortion laws were introduced societies attitudes, safe medical practices and women’s status in Australian society have changed. As a result the current laws do not reflect modern day’s society’s view and does not effec tively protect stakeholder’s rights. Abortion should be decriminalised and made legal up to 17 weeks. However abortion past 17 weeks can onlyRead MoreShould Abortion Be Legal?889 Words   |  4 Pages Abortion is beyond doubt a debatable topic all around the world. In the United States, people are nowhere near any settlement of the matter and have not come to an agreement for the foreseeable future. The topic of abortion brings up a debatable issue regarding prenatal testing. An ultrasound is a standard procedure where the fetus can be checked upon and evaluated. With this procedure, abnormalities of the fetus can be detected, so further testing can be done to determine the health of the fetusRead MoreAbortion Is Not The Murder Of An Infant1507 Words   |  7 Pageshas a different perspective on abortion. The first written works of Christianity states â€Å"You shall not kill the embryo by abortion and shall not cause the newborn to perish.† In the early Christianity, abortion was prohibited. The early church leader who had agreed on abortion stated: â€Å"that if an abortion was performed to hide the consequences of fornication and adultery, then it was a sin that requi red penance.† This lit the sparks between Christians on whether abortion was considered a murder or notRead MoreShould Abortion Be Legal?879 Words   |  4 PagesAbortion is a very debatable topic all around the world. In the United States, people are nowhere near any settlement on the matter and have not come to an agreement for the foreseeable future. The topic of abortion brings up a debatable issue regarding prenatal testing. An ultrasound is a standard procedure where the fetus can be checked upon and evaluated. With this procedure, abnormalities of the fetus can be detected, so further testing can be done to determine the health of the fetus. NeverthelessRead MoreAbortion1572 Words   |  7 Pages Abortion Fact #1: Every abortion kills an innocent human being. Every new life begins at conception. This is an irrefutable fact of biology. It is true for animals and true for humans. When considered alongside the law of biogenesis – that every species reproduces after its own kind – we can draw only one conclusion in regard to abortion: every single abortion ends the life of an innocent human being. Fact #2: Every human being is a person. Personhood is properly definedRead MoreIs Abortion Morally Wrong?1704 Words   |  7 Pagessociety is how the legalities apply to the process of abortion. In this debate, most people usually connect with either the â€Å"pro-life† argument, or the â€Å"pro-choice† argument. Before developing a position, it is important to understand both sides of the argument and weigh the consequences of each. The common ground between the two is often mistaken, making it difficult for people to find their position. People who support banishing legal abortions are usually referred to as â€Å"pro-lifers.† They usuallyRead MoreAbortion Is The Most Controversial Right1377 Words   |  6 Pagesinduced abortions are common and occur among women of all social and economic groups. Where the abortion rate is high, it likely reflects that levels of contraceptive use are not sufficient to meet the fertility desires and family planning needs of women and couples. History/background of the issue: Since 1996, abortion rates declined by at least 2% per year in 12 of the 28 countries with complete abortion counts and trend data, and rates increased by this much in two countries. Abortion rates wereRead MoreAbortion : Pro Choice Or Pro Life Essay1492 Words   |  6 Pages The topic of abortion is a highly controversial discussion that has been prominent in the debates of morals and politics for decades. Most people agree that on the topic of abortion, it is like a black and white fallacy, which is an issue that only has two options. For example, a black and white and fallacy is that a person can either be a Republican or Democrat, there is no other option. In the discussion of abortion, the black and white fallacy is either pro-choice or pro-life. Despite this commonlyRead MoreThe Issue Of Pregnancy Termination1215 Words   |  5 Pagesyears of age. Abortion has been legal in the United States since Roe v. Wade, a 1973 landmark decision held that the Fourteenth Amendment’s right of personal privacy covered the woman’s choice to carry a child or not. Republican Administrations such as those of Former Presidents’ Ronald Raegan and George W. Bush have been tough on abortion rights and sparked anti-abortion movements (Joffe 2013). With a new republican president in the White House and existing restrictions on abortions, it is importantRead MoreEssay on Abortion is Death1566 Words   |  7 Pages â€Å"If we accept that a mother can kill her own child, how can we tell other people not to kill each other? Any country that accepts abortion is not teaching its people to love, rather, to use violence to get what they want† -- Mother Theresa If the people who have worked on finding a cure

Eyewitness Testimony as a Source of Reliable Evidence Free Essays

string(156) " source of information and pay close attention to it, but the witness may have had a hard time remembering the event and the testimony could be inaccurate\." Eyewitness Testimony as a source of reliable evidence In relation to cognitive psychology, is eyewitness testimony reliable in today’s judicial system? Word Count: 3944 ABSTRACT Is eyewitness testimony a reliable source of evidence in today’s judicial system? Many jurors tend to pay close attention to eyewitness testimony assuming that what they hear is exactly as it happened. They ignore the psychology behind remembering an event. Our brain is a complex structure and it is difficult to absorb every stimulus in our surrounding. We will write a custom essay sample on Eyewitness Testimony as a Source of Reliable Evidence or any similar topic only for you Order Now We pay great attention to some aspects of a situation while completely ignoring others. It is advisable for expert psychologists to be present during a court case that involves eyewitness testimony, as they are more aware of its flaws. We store information in schemas and when we gain new knowledge it is altered in order to fit these schemas. Leading psychologists such as Elizabeth Loftus, Neil Bartlett and Yullie Cutshall have carried out research in order to demonstrate how our memory can be altered by psychological factors such as leading questions, reconstructive memory and weapon focus. This research paper contains a vast number of experiments and studies done in order to illustrate the unreliability of our memory and whether courts should rely on eyewitness testimony as a prime source. Age and gender also serve as factors that influence eyewitness testimony. Through research and analysis, it is concluded in this paper that eyewitness testimony should not be given superiority over other actual evidence presented, as our memory is the least reliable source. It is worthwhile to carry out further investigation about the case if eyewitness testimony is the only evidence available, as false testimonies could lead to an innocent individual being charged guilty. Word Count: 260 CONTENTS Abstract †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 2 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 4 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 7 Misleading Questions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 7 Anxiety and Stress†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 9 Weapon Focus†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 11 Reconstructive Memory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 11 Confident Testimony†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 14 Age†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 15 Gender†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 16 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 17 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 19 INTRODUCTION The reliability of eyewitness testimony has often been questioned in cases of crime and violence but yet the judicial syste m seems to ignore its flaws. Numerous psychologists have carried out experiments and studies regarding this issue. Eyewitness testimony has a large psychological background that judges, lawyers and the jury seem to ignore. Our ability to remember certain situations and events may be distorted according to the time and place that the event occurred or the time and place that the eyewitness testimony is given. Cognitive psychologists have carried out profound research about this phenomenon and have found that eyewitness testimony can be related to human schemas, reconstructive memory and our ability to remember. The knowledge we have gained from the world is stored in our brain as an organized package of information called a schema. The ‘schema theory’ states that the knowledge we have already gained through our life has a major influence on what we remember. According to Cohen (1986) as cited in Gross (64), the human mind uses past experiences in order to deal with new experiences. Our behavior is guided by the set of schemas that we have in our brain. The new experiences that we face are not just ‘replicated’ into our memory but instead are reconstructed in order to fit our schemas. The reconstruction of memory is an active process and happens throughout our life (Gross, 64). Therefore, how we perceive an event is strongly influenced by our past experiences. Human memory is seen as an unreliable source when we apply the idea of reconstructive and interpretative nature of memory to eyewitness testimony. The probability of people being wrongly accused increases as the importance of eyewitness testimony in the cases of accidents and crimes increases, and therefore the guilty do not come to justice (Gross, 64). Many experiments conclude that law professionals and judges rely and place their decisions on eyewitness testimony, however, researchers investigated on situations whereby the innocent had been accused. As cited in Miller’s article (2006), Gary Wells (1998) researched on forty such cases and with the help of DNA testing it was found that all forty convicted suspects were actually innocent. The witnesses wrongfully accused the suspects in thirty-six of these cases. The human brain has a limited capacity to deal with the incoming information but yet every moment we encounter a large variety of stimuli like sights, sounds and smells. However, as mentioned above if we encounter stimuli which conflict with our schemas, we reconstruct our memory in order to fit our chemas. The human brain therefore focuses on some aspects of the situation while ignoring the others in order to cope with the sensory barrage. This process of choosing stimuli is called selective attention. Eyewitnesses tend to collect information that relates to their interests and may ignore other vital aspects of the event (Glassman, 5). It is difficult for witnesses to reconsider their initial understanding once the y have stated facts in a specific way or have already indentified an individual as the performer, due to the reconstruction of their memory (e. . once an eyewitness recognizes an individual in a line-up it is likely for them to recognize the same individual in later line-ups even though that individual may not be the performer). Jury’s place great reliance on eyewitness testimony and ignore the dangers of false memories (Engelhardt, n. d). In view of these findings, this work will investigate the â€Å"extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable in today’s judicial system† focusing on major factors that influence our memory and ability to remember. Cognitive psychology plays a major role in this investigation as it involves the idea of memory and schemas. DISCUSSION â€Å"An account given by people of an event they have witnessed† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) is usually referred to as an eyewitness testimony. One may be asked to recall the event they witnessed and describe what happened. Jury’s tend to find eyewitness testimony to be a reliable source of information and pay close attention to it, but the witness may have had a hard time remembering the event and the testimony could be inaccurate. You read "Eyewitness Testimony as a Source of Reliable Evidence" in category "Papers" Research done by a number of psychologists regarding eyewitness testimony found that it could be affected by many psychological factors such as leading questions, anxiety and stress, weapons and reconstructive memory (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Factors such as age and gender could also affect the way in which individuals remember events. Influence of psychological factors on eyewitness testimony Misleading questions American psychologist, Elizabeth Loftus, represented the application of Cognitive psychology to the real world. Her experiments demonstrated how misleading information could cause eyewitnesses to reconstruct their memories (Gross, 64). A leading question is a question that contains information previously unknown to the witness. In one of her studies with Palmer (Loftus and Palmer, 1974) as cited in the article Memory (Psychology), the participants watched a videotape that showed an automobile accident consisting of two cars. After watching the videotape the participants were presented with a questionnaire whereby the question was altered for groups of participants. One question asked, â€Å"About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? † For other participants the verb ‘hit’ was replaced by ‘smashed’, ‘collided’, ‘bumped’, or ‘contacted’. Even though all participants viewed the same videotape, their speed estimates differed considerably depending on how the question was asked. When the verb ‘contacted’ was used, the average speed estimate was 32 mph, when the verb was ‘hit’ it was 34 mph, 38mph when it was ‘bumped’, 39 mph when it was ‘collided’, and 41 mph when it was smash. Loftus carried out a follow up study a week later whereby she asked the participants whether there was any broken glass in the videotape. Participants that were presented with the verb ‘smashed’ were twice as likely to ‘remember’ any broken glass than the participants that were presented with the verb ‘hit’. The information that came in much later after the original event had occurred incorporated with that event, hence causing the original even to be remembered in a different way. The introduction of false signs misrepresented the participants’ memories (Memory (Psychology)). The power of misleading questions is demonstrated in the above study by Loftus Palmer. An answer is determined by how the question is asked. The tendency to distort one’s memory of an event when later exposed to misleading information about it is known as the misinformation effect. The witness’s memory could be affected by questions asked by the police, friends or attorneys. Reconstruction of memory could also take place if information about the case or crime comes in weeks or months later. This may change what the witness has to say on the witness stand (Memory (Psychology)). The questions and information presented in the courtroom may cause the witness to remember the incident differently and the eyewitness testimony becomes inaccurate. Leading questions lead to the reconstruction of memory in order for the new information to fit into our already existing schemas. Leading questions therefore have the tendency to make eyewitness testimony unreliable in today’s judicial system. It is important for lawyers to know about the consequences of these questions and therefore construct their questions well. Anxiety and stress Along with leading questions it is said that anxiety and stress is a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. Some researchers have questioned whether attentional focus is a reason that causes poor recall of a violent incident. Clifford and Scott (1978) as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology, found that when individuals witness a rather violent incident they seem to remember less than individuals who witness a non-violent incident. They carried out a study whereby they presented a film with violent attacks to a group of participants. The control group who saw a less violent version of the film remembered more of the forty items about the event than the participants. The control group was not exposed to very stressful conditions as compared to the participants. Although this may have not been a real-life situation, the memory of the participants was affected by anxiety. An increase in anxiety and autonomic arousal is caused by violent incidents that in turn have a disadvantageous effect on memory. On the other hand, a study carried out by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) (as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) contradicts Clifford and Scott’s findings. The research gathered by Yullie and Cutshall was that of a real-life situation hence making their data more accurate. The researchers showed that individuals had accurate memories when they witnessed a stressful event up close. The event was of a shooting just outside a gun shop in Canada. The scene witnessed was of a criminal who robbed the gun shop off guns and money but eventually was shot six times and died on the spot. Straight after this shooting had taken place, the police asked to interview thirteen individuals who were there at the time of the event and had witnessed it. Five months later these same thirteen individuals were interviewed again. It was found that the recall was still as accurate as it was five months after witnessing the event. The two misleading questions that were presented by the police did not affect their memories or alter their testimony. However, one limitation to this study was that the witnesses interviewed were at different distances from the scene and the ones that were the closest went through a greater level of stress and this in turn may have assisted with their ability to remember the event vividly (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Through both the studies carried out about anxiety and memory recall we can say that experiments carried out under laboratory conditions may not give the same results as when it is a real-life situation. Memory recall of a real-life situation is accurate even after a few months and the loaded questions do have as much of an effect as they do in laboratory experiments (e. g Loftus Palmer, 1974) (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). The above information gives a re-assurance that eyewitness testimony is not completely unreliable depending on the situation and the witness’s role in the event. There may be some situations where memory distortions take place and other situations where they do not. Whether memory distortion or reconstruction takes place or not depends on the witness’s state of mind at the time of the event. The emotional state of the individual may cloud their reason, judgment and perception; therefore it is necessary to be neutral and unbiased when witnessing a crime scene. Weapon Focus The study by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) also relates to ‘weapon focus’ as a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. When weapons are involved the witness is less likely to remember details about the riminal but is more likely to remember the details of the weapon (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). An experiment conducted by Johnson and Scott (1976) as cited in Loftus et al (56) illustrated this phenomenon. In the ‘no weapon’ condition participants overheard a mild conversation in the next room about an equipment failure, witne ssed a confederate enter the room with a grease pen, watched him utter a single line and leave. In the ‘weapon’ condition the participants overheard a violent conversation along with crashing objects, saw a confederate enter the room with a bloodied letter opener, watched him utter a single line and then leave. Participants in both condition witnessed the target individual for four seconds. It was found that 33% of the participants in the ‘bloody letter opener’ condition identified the culprit correctly and 49% of the participants in the greasy pen condition identified the culprit correctly. A reduced ability to remember the confederate was associated with the presence of a weapon. Jury’s should take into account whether or not weapons were involved in the crime. This is because the eyewitness will be less likely to recognize the criminal and an innocent individual may be held guilty. Our attention is usually drawn to the weapon and we ignore what else may be happening in our surroundings. Reconstructive Memory The reliability of eyewitness testimony can yet be argued through reconstructive memory. As mentioned earlier reconstructive memory is another one of the many psychological factors that has an effect on eyewitness testimony. Psychologist Neil Bartlett played a key role in associating reconstructive memory to eyewitness testimony as he stated that ‘recall is subject to personal interpretation dependent on our learnt or cultural norms and values’. We have already established the fact that the human memory alters according to the way in which we store information in our brain, it is not stored exactly as it seems to be; different people interpret a situation differently and therefore store it in a way that makes sense to them. The brain stores information in schemas, but these schemas are able to distort unconsciously ‘unacceptable’ and unfamiliar knowledge in order to ‘fit in’ with the already stored information or schemas that we have which n turn results in unreliable eyewitness testimony (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Bartlett’s research about reconstructive memory found that â€Å"memory is an active process and subject to individual interpretation or construction† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). War of the Ghosts, (Bartlett (1932) as cited in Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) was his most famous study whereby he tried to show that we attempt to link what we remember with our e xisting schemas. In other words, our memory is not just an accurate footage of what has happened but it is what we make of it. Bartlett mentioned that we usually involuntarily modify our memories so they make more sense to us. In the study Bartlett’s participants heard a story and had to re-tell the story to another person. The story was a North American folktale called ‘The War of the Ghosts’. When the participants were asked to recount the details of the story, each individual seemed to tell it in their own individual way. As the participants re-told the story, it became shorter, puzzling ideas were rationalized or omitted altogether and details changed to become more conventional or familiar. The information about the ghosts was omitted as it was difficult to explain and participants recurrently recalled the idea of â€Å"not going because he hadn’t told his parents where he was going†, as that circumstance was more familiar to them. Through the above study Bartlett was able to conclude that our memory is distorted by the existing knowledge and schemas we have in the human brain. Therefore, it seems that each individual reconstructs their memory to conform to their individual values and attitudes towards the world. This is a clear indication that our memories are anything but reliable. How we view and remember things depends on our ethics, culture, belief and past experiences. Also through reconstructive memory we make hasty generalizations basing information on what we ‘think’ may have happened due to the information we already have stored. We shape and assemble the incident according to our stereotypes and expectations. This can further be elaborated through a study by Allport and Postman (1947) as cited in Jarvis Russell (131), whereby they presented participants with a picture of a scruffy white man threatening a smart black man with a razor. Later when the participants were told to recall the picture they recalled that a scruffy black man was threatening a smart white man with a razor. This fitted in with the American stereotypes of that time; the participants reconstructed their memory according to their expectations. We can say that reconstructive memory is yet another reason that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable; however, some psychologists do believe that schema theory exaggerates the inaccuracy of memory. It cannot predict what and how people remember, as we do not know which schemas are being used. The study by Allport and Postman also ties down into another way our cognitive system introduces error, which is by the means of inference. Inference emphasizes on how humans tend to make assumptions past the literal meaning. Many memory distortions are a part of this inference whereby what the eyewitness says to have witnessed is not what was perceived but a mere extension of it, hence, leading to an inaccurate recall of the event or incident (Glassman, 440) Flaws of the eyewitness as an individual Confident Testimony Confident testimony is yet another flaw that tends to put innocent people in jail. When the witnesses say with absolute confidence that ‘this is the guy that did it†¦ I will never forget that face’, it is difficult to argue with their beliefs. Confidence is a strong characteristic and although people may make mistakes with their testimony the way in which they give their testimony has a strong outcome on the jury. It becomes difficult to question their evidence and discredit their feelings after knowing that the witness went through a horrible crime especially when they give their testimony with absolute assurance. Jurors will usually believe them. A major flaw that Elizabeth Loftus points out is that judges do not usually use the help of experts in order to bear out to the jury about the flaws of eyewitness testimony. It would be helpful to have a few cognitive psychologists as part of the jury in order to point out the factors that affect eyewitness testimony; however some judges will allow this while others will not. Jury’s that are unaware of the flaws of eyewitness testimony will have a larger percentile of wrongful verdicts compared to jury’s that are educated about he flaws. Elizabeth Loftus went on to explain that jury’s that are unaware of memory distortions will tend to decide their verdict from their ‘gut feeling’. Jury’s that are ignorant about these flaws rely greatly on the witness and have a propensity to discount the balance that needs to be present between the eyewitness testimony and the physical scientific evidence. Loftus also pointed out that when a witness repeatedly sees the accused they become encrypted in the victim’s memory, even if they are innocent. The victim may continually see the suspect in photos and line-ups during the duration of the investigation period and court case. This may make it possible that the witness will then not be able to recognize the true criminal anymore, especially if the crime was witnessed for a short time and the victim was not able to perceive every stimulus in the surrounding. Therefore, when the witness will testify with absolute confidence that the ‘suspect’ is the actual criminal, it will be difficult for the jury to argue (Miller, 2006). Age Psychological factors definitely play a huge role in eyewitness testimony but the characteristics of the witness also matter. Jury’s should also take into account the age and gender of the witness. Certain research has been done in order to identify the accuracy of a child’s eyewitness testimony; it is much less accurate than the adults’ testimony. This is because children are not able to give concrete answers to the questions that require much explanation. Children have less cognitive competence i. e. their information processing skills for problem solving, language and attention are undeveloped. Psychologists from University of Southampton conducted research to analyze a child’s ability to answer repeated questions during a testimony. When a child gives a testimony they are afraid to be incorrect therefore repeated questions are not beneficial when it comes to child eye-witnessing as the questions confuse them and make them think that their original story was not true. The first information provided by the child is always the best. The younger the child is, the less accurate the testimony will be. Children usually give incorrect information due to their need to be socially approved. Karpel et al (2001) as cited in Science Aid carried out research associated with age and eyewitness testimony. His aim was to see how reliable eyewitness testimony is in older people. Young adults (17 – 25) and older adults (65 – 85) were shown a video of a theft. They were then asked to recollect what they had seen in the video. The results of both age groups were compared and it was seen that the information provided by the young adults was more precise and their testimony was less likely to change when asked leading questions.. In order to ensure that information provided by elderly people is accurate it is advisable not to expose them to misleading questions as their memories are easily distorted. Also, older adults misremember context and therefore must be questioned carefully. As seen, age is another factor that affects eyewitness testimony and its reliability. It is important to know the age of the witness before moving on with the case as psychologists may have a slight idea about how reliable the provided information might be (Science Aid). Gender There has been no concrete evidence as yet that males and females have a significant difference when identifying a criminal. Research by Shapiro Penrod (1986) as cited in Wells Olson (280) found that females are more likely to make accurate identifications but are also more likely to make false identifications, as they are more likely to try and ‘attempt’ to identify. Due to this males and females capitulate an equal ability to identify criminals and give an eyewitness testimony. However since the male and female brains differ slightly, both genders will pay closer attention to different features of the incident, but the overall ability in eyewitness identification is impossible to tell apart. CONCLUSION Through research we have found that eyewitness testimony can be quite fallible and that there are a number of factors that seem to interfere with our memories. It is important for jury’s to be aware of these factors before placing a verdict and should not place great reliance on factors such as confidence and vivid descriptions of details. If possible, it is advisable o find other evidence rather than eyewitness testimony. A major limitation of the research investigated is that majority of the studies done in relation to eyewitness testimony are laboratory studies. This inhibits us to generalize the data collected to the real world. An implication for future research would be to carry out more interviews with individuals who have witnessed acts of crim e and violence rather than basing conclusions on laboratory studies. Also, it could be helpful to carry out research regarding a number of factors that affect eyewitness testimony (e. g. study that compares the ability to remember events when the variables are age, gender, weapons and misleading questions). The limitation presented does not change the fact that human memory is a very personal and comparative aspect and therefore cannot be a foundation for any important decisions. It is important to know that memory changes with time and every consequent attempt to recall the event will be just another skewed interpretation of the event. Eyewitnesses can refute or support the general facts about the case but the details and their testimony should not be put superior to the actual evidence presented in court. Studies have also proven that innocent people have been accused due to eyewitness testimony, this elaborates on the unreliability of it. Our ability to recall an event is affected by the information provided after the event, the level of stress and anxiety we are at during the time of the event also affects it, the presence of weapons also distorts our memory, reconstructive memory is yet another psychological factor that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable, our expectations, age and gender also play a role when giving a testimony. All these factors should be taken into consideration when the evidence provided is eyewitness testimony. The reliability of eyewitness testimony in today’s judicial system is very low and should be analyzed in depth before reaching conclusions. REFERENCES Engelhardt, L. (n. d. ). â€Å"The problem with Eyewitness Testimony†. Agora. Retrieved Jan. 02, 2010 from http://agora. stanford. edu/sjls/Issue%20One/fishertversky. html. Eyewitness Testimony Psychology research. (2007). Psychology Degree and A-level online resources. Retrieved Feb. 2, 2010 from http://www. simplypsychology. pwp . blueyonder. co. uk/eyewitness-testimony. html Glassman, William E. (2000). Approaches to Psychology. Buckingham, England: Open UP. Gross, Richard D. (1999). Key Studies in Psychology. London: Hodder Stoughton. Jarvis, M. , Russell, J. (2002). Key Ideas in Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Loftus, E. F. , Loftus, G. R. , Messo, J. (1987). Some facts about weapon focus. Law and Human Behaviour. Memory (psychology) – MSN Encarta. (n. d. ). Retrieved Sept. 14, 2009 from http://encarta. msn. om/encyclopedia_761578303_5/Memory_(psychology). html Miller, Z. (2006, October 14). The Accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony and Its Flaws. Retrieved December 23, 2009, from http://ezinearticles. com/? The- ­Accuracy- ­of- ­Eye- ­Witness- ­Testimony- ­and- ­Its- ­Flawsid=328261 Science aid: Eyewitness Testimony. (n. d. ) Science Aid: High School, A Level and GCSE Science. Retrieved 13 Dec. 2009 from http://scienceaid. co. uk/psychology/cognition/eyewitness. html Wells, Gary L. , Olson, Elizabeth A. (2003). Eyewitness Testimony. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University. How to cite Eyewitness Testimony as a Source of Reliable Evidence, Papers

Paul Bunyan Essays - Paul Bunyan, American Folklore,

Paul Bunyan Paul was a great tall man who loved to eat pancakes. In fact he was so tall that when his was little his parents had to leave him in the forest because they were getting complaints from the neighbors. But Paul wasn't alone when he got older and was walking along the mountains and saw to big horns sticking out of the blue snow. He pulled them up and found a big baby ox who was blue like the snow they were having. Once Paul looked into his eyes they became the best of friends. He decided to call to call the ox Babe. Paul and Babe were basically inseparable. Once they got into a wrestling match. Paul threw Babe one and Paul whipped Babe back. When they were all done the created a mountain range we know today called the Grand Tetons. Also one day Paul and Babe had to walk a long way threw Minnesota in the snow. There foot prints were so big that when the snow melted it formed a thousand lakes. But Paul an Babe's biggest adventure was when him and Paul had to clear out the Dakotas so that people could live on the land. Well they were doing this Babe had pulled roads and rivers straight so that they could carry the logs where they could go. Babe was a very strong ox as you have just read and he was getting stronger and taller by the minutes. The men said that if you look at Babe for 5 minutes you could actually see him grow. The men also said that if u measured between his eyes it would turn out to be some where between 42 axe handles. It took Paul, babe, a million or so men to clear the Dakotas but with the help with Sally's pancakes they finished in about a year. After that last tree was cut Paul was so happy that he went up to the mountins and carved president Roosevelt and three other past president's faces in them. Later on Paul was asked to see who could cut the most trees down in a certain amount of time. It was him and Babe against a man with something called a chainsaw. Paul cut his heart out to try to win. But when they measurements came in the man with the chain saw had won. Paul was so sad that him and Babe just walked right in to the woods where they still are today, but they aren't chopping trees.Oh no, they have noticed there are becoming less and less trees in the world today so they are trying to plant more trees.